By Bruce Macfarlane, author of Notes on Arthurian Literature
From the mid-5th century south and eastern Britain began to receive Germanic settlements which generally coexisted with the British populations under treaties. Evidence is seen in Bede and the ASC e.g.
However, the beginning of the 6th century saw increased conflicts and migrations in Europe with pressure in the east from Slavic and Asiatic tribes pushing the Germanic tribes west . The ASC begins to report wars and battles between the Britons and newly arrived Saxons, with a British victory at Baddon around 517 AD.
There have been various explanations for the invasions or migrations however the most probable driving force may have been a catastrophic change in the climate in the early 6th century. Evidence for this can be found in Romans, Celts and Saxons texts which record various plagues, solar eclipses and dark skies .
This table tries to compare events in Arthurian literature with external historical and astronomical events.
It includes a list of calculated dates of appearances of Halley’s Comet (53) and Solar/Lunar eclipses in Britain as calculated by NASA against such events recorded in medieval manuscripts.
Key to sources
BD: Bede,
NH: Nennius,
AC: Annales Cambrae,
ASC: Anglo-Saxon Chronical,
GLD: Gildas,
RW: Roger of Wendover
| 374 | 16 Feb 374 Halley’s Comet. This event remained above magnitude 0 for 10 weeks | |
| 375 | 375-392 Valentinian II | |
| 378 | 378 – 448 St Germanus of Auxerre | |
| 381 | ASC: This year Maximus the Caesar came to the empire. He was born in the land of Britain | |
| 383 | Magnus Maximus appointed governor of Britain: takes large proportion of British to Gaul & defeats Gratian | NH: Maximian took 30,000 soldiers to Gaul |
| 388 | Maximus killed at Aquileia | |
| 390 | a new and strange star was seen in the sky. The light of all the stars mingled together, and shone forth in a single flame, assuming the shape of a double-edged sword, huge and terrible Philostorgius, “Ecclesiastical History” | |
| 391 | ‘Bright globes’ at night merged into a ‘sword’. ‘Time of Theodosius’. Possibly comet of 390. | |
| 399 | Stilicho save Britain | |
| 407 | Barbarians cross frozen Rhine
407-411 Constantine III emperor in Britain. Constantine II in Geofrey’s Historia appointed by Gracianus (Gratian?) soldiers of Maximus | |
| 409 | Britain devastated by Saxons | |
| 410 | Plague & Famine in Rome – Honorius | |
| 411 | Constantius III defeated Gerontius, the general of usurper Maximus, and Constantine III, | |
| 421 | Constantius III co-emperor of the Western Empire with Honorius for 7 months | BD: 420 Then the Romans ceased to rule in Britain, almost 470 years after Caius Julius Caesar entered the island |
| 424 | 424-450 Valentinian III | BD: 426-447 a severe plague fell upon that corrupt generation |
| 433 | 433-454 Flavius Aetius | ASC: Appeal by Britons for help against Picts and Irish GLD: To Aetius, now consul for the third time: the groans of the Britains BD: King Vortigern to call over to their aid, from the parts beyond the sea, the Saxon nation |
| 446 | BD: 446. To Ætius, thrice Consul, the groans of the Britons. | |
| 447 | RW: Scots and Picts rise up against Vortigern | |
| 448 | 378 – 448 St Germanus of Auxerre | GLD: a pestilential disease mortally affected RW: Germanus defeats Scots and Picts RW: Scots and Picts rise up against Vortigern
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| 449 | 449 Marcian III made emperor with Valentinian | GLD:? Proud tyrant invites 3 keels of saxons BD: Martian & Valentinian ruled the empire seven years. Then Saxons, invited by the aforesaid king, arrived in three long ships. RW: Vortigern invites Hengest & Horsa to Britain – 3 keels ASC: Vortigern invites Hengest & Horsa to Britain |
| 451 | Halley’s Comet 451AD Annals of Sung Halley’s Comet 451 A.D. Comet. Hydatius Bishop of Aquae Flaviae. This appearance coincided with Attila the Huns fall 451 Aetius and Theodoric I defeats Attila | GLD:? The country ravaged by fire and all the towns destroyed BD: Arrival of Saxons. Hengest & Horsa invited by Vortigren NH: Constantine, brother of Aldroen. Sons Constans, Uther, Aurelius Ambrosius |
| 455 | 455 19/1 total lunar eclipse 455 Aetius & Valentinium III killed by Petronius Maximus | ASC: Hengest & Horsa fights Vortigern at Aylesford NH:? Vortgern kills Constans and becomes king NH:? Hengest & Horsa invited by Vortigren |
| 457 | Leo I 457-474 | ASC: Hengest kills 4000 Britons |
| 458 | total solar eclipse | NH:? St Gerrmanus admonishes Vortigern |
| 460 | 460-465 Emperor Libius Severus | RW: Vortigern invites Hengest to Britain |
| 464 | 464 partial solar eclipse | RW: Britons send message for help to Aurelius Ambrosius and his brother Uther in Brittany |
| 465 | ||
| 466 | ASC: Hengest defeats Welsh near Wipped’s Creek RW: Ambrosius attacks Vortigern who has killed his father and brother | |
| 467 | 467-472 Emperor Anthemius recruited the Breton Riothamus living in Armorica to fight Euricus | |
| 473 | RW: Ambrosius defeats Saxons at Wipedesfleet | |
| 474 | 474-491 Zeno last western emperor | BD: Chronica Majora; In the reign of Zeno, the Britons, under the leadership of Ambrosius Aurelianus defeated them |
| 480 | BD: 447 or 480 The Saxons were received by Vortigern, four hundred and forty-seven years after the passion of Christ, and, according to the tradition of our ancestors | |
| 487 | RW: Ambrosius Aurelius slew a great multitude of Saxons | |
| 490 | RW: Ambrosius Aurelius besieges York with Merlin | |
| 494 | GLD: 494? Ambrosius Aurelius battle Baddon hill- 44 years after the landing of the saxons and Gildas’ birth BD: Ambrosius Aurelius. Under him till the year of the siege of Baddesdownhill, about fortyfour years after their arrival in England | |
| 495 | ASC: Cerdic and Cynric his son came to Britain, fought with the Welsh the same day. Then Cerdic died and Cynric reigned for 26 years | |
| 497 | GLD: external wars stop but civil war continues RW: death of Aurelius Ambrosius and star on a fiery ball like a dragon | |
| 498 | GLD: 498? 5 Tyrants; Constantius of Dumnonia, Aurelius Caninus, Vortiporius, Cuneglasus, Maglocunus (Maelgwn) RW: Coronation of Uther Pendragon | |
| 500 | NH: The Saxons were received by Vortigern, four hundred and forty-seven years after the passion of Christ, | |
| 501 | ASC: Beda & Bela slew a young Britain of high rank | |
| 507 | partial solar eclipse | |
| 508 | ASC: Cerdic and Cynric slew a British king whose name was Natanleod | |
| 514 | ASC: at Cerdic’s-ore. Stuff and Wihtgar fought with the Britons, and put them to flight | |
| 516 | ANC: Battle of Baddon RW: Death of Uther and Arthur crowned King; a youth of 15 years | |
| 519 | ASC: Cerdic & Cynric establishes Wessex kingdom after battle of Cerdicesford | |
| 520 | NH: when Arthur penetrated to the hill of Badon. RW: Arthur at Baddon | |
| 525 | Anno Domini starts for dating | |
| 527 | 527 -565 Justinian | RW: Justinian begins reign |
| 530 | 530 AD Chinese Annals of Wei (83) Halley’s Comet | ASC: 530 This year Cerdic and Cynric took the Isle of Wight, and slew many men. |
| 534 | ASC Cerdic died and son Cynric reigned for 26 yrs | |
| 536 | 536-546 Tree ring growth. Volcanic winter 536-7 Procopius “a grave portent”. whole year “the Sun sent forth his rays without his usual brilliance. Cassiodorus “The Sun lost its wonted light and seems of a bluish colour. We marvel to see no shadows of our bodies at noon” 536 partial solar eclipse | |
| 536 | ||
| 537 | 537 Siege of Rome (537–38) Gothic War. | AC: Camlann and the death of Arthur and Medraut. and there was plague in Britain and Ireland RW: Arthur Slays Lucas Roman Consul |
| 538 | 538 31/1 total lunar eclipse | ASC: 538 Eclipse of the sun lasting all day |
| 539 | 539 sun was eclipsed | RW: sun was eclipsed |
| 540 | 540 20/6 total solar eclipse Rome 540 Zachariah of Mitylene said that “a great and terrible comet appeared in the sky at evening time for 100 days” about A.D. 540. | ASC: This year the sun was eclipsed |
| 541 | 541 Plague of Justinian (541–542) | RW: a comet over Gaul and great mortality just before the final battle between Arthur and Mordred |
| 543 | RW: 2 sons of Mordred killed by Constantine | |
| 544 | 544 total solar eclipse | |
| 545 | RW: Constantine king of Britons died. Succeeded by nephew Aurelius Conan | |
| 546 | 536-546 Tree ring growth. Volcanic winter | |
| 547 | AC: a great death. Maelgwn of Gwynedd died. Followed by yellow plague | |
| 549 | Annals of Ulster: A great mortality in which these rested | |
| 552 | ASC: Cynric defeats Britons at Sarum | |
| 556 | ASC: Cynric defeats Britons at Beranbury | |
| 570 | AC: death of Gildas | |
| 571 | RW: completed one cycle of the Easter period 524 years after the crucifixion | |
| 573 | AC: The battle of Arfderydd between the sons of Eliffer and Gwenddolau son of Ceidio; in which battle Gwenddolau fell; Merlin went mad. | |
| 577 | ASC: Cuthwin & Cuthu kill 3 British kings. Commail, Cordida, Farinmail at Dyrham | |
| 578 | RW: St Germanus died. Aurelus Conanus king of Britons died succeeded by Vortipore | |
| 580 | RW: firey meteors. Ceaulin took Gloucester, Cirencester and Bath AC: Conversion of Constantine BD: Maurice | |
| 584 | RW: Tiberius died | |
| 590 | Roman Plague: Death of Pope Pellagius II | |
| 592 | total solar eclipse Constantinople | AC: Augustine converts English |
| 601 | AC: Pope Greogory dies BD: many things are at hand which were not before, viz. changes of air, and terrors from heaven, and tempests out of the order of the seasons, wars, famines, plagues, earthquakes in several places | |
| 604 | Pope Gregory dies | |
| 607 | Halley’s Comet Seen for over 100 days in China. | |
| 626 | AC: Edwin baptised | |
| 639 | 639 total solar eclipse | RW: Cerdic first king of Saxons dies |
| 661 | 661 partial solar eclipse | |
| 664 | 664 total solar eclipse | ASC: This year the sun was eclipsed, on the eleventh of May; there was a great plague in the island Britain BD: there happened an eclipse of the sun, on the third In the same year, a sudden pestilence depopulated of men. |
| 665 | ANC: The first celebration of Easter among the Saxons. The second battle of Badon. Morgan dies | |
| 676 | 676-677 Japan, China, Italy – Comet | AC: A star of marvelous brightness was seen shining throughout the whole world RW: Comet appeared and shone for 3 months ASC: here the star comet appeared and shone for 3 months BD: a comet appeared and Bishop Wifred driven from his See |
| 680 | 680 Roman Plague | |
| 682 | AC: A great plague in Britain, in which Cadwaladr son of Cadwallon dies | |
| 684 | 684 AD Chinese Annals of Tang (83) Halley’s Comet | AC: A plague was in Ireland |
| 686 | 686 eclipse of the moon | RW: eclipse of the moon |
| 687 | 687 Plague in Egypt | RW: a terrible pestilence also in Rome |
| 689 | ANC: The rain turned to blood in Britain, and in Ireland milk and butter turned sour | |
| 698 | partial solar eclipse | |
| 729 | ASC: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ..this year a star appeared and St. Egbert died | |
| 733 | 733 partial solar eclipse | ASC: the sun was eclipsed; |
| 734 | 734 total lunar eclipse | RW: 7 Bede died RW: Moon suffused with blood ASC:. This year was the moon as if covered with blood; |
| 735 | 735 Death of Bede | |
| 758 | 758 total solar eclipse | |
| 760 | 760AD Chinese Annals of Tang (83) Halley’s Comet 760 eclipse of the moon | RW: eclipse of the moon |
| 764 | 764 partial solar eclipse | |
| 774 | 774–775 Carbon-14 Spike: Possile Solar flare | RW: This year also appeared in the heavens a red crucifix, after sunset; the Mercians and the men of Kent fought at Otford; and wonderful serpents were seen in the land of the South-Saxons. |
| 793 | ASC: This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery, dragons flying across the firmament. | |
| 795 | ASC: This year was the moon eclipsed, between cock-crowing and dawn, on the fifth day before the calends of April | |
| 800 | ASC. This year was the moon eclipsed, at eight in the | |
| 806 | ASC: here the moon grew dark on 1 September | |
| 807 | ASC. This year was the sun eclipsed, | |
| 818 | 818 partial solar eclipse | |
| 827 | ASC: This year was the moon eclipsed | |
| 837 | 837 February 6 Halley’s Comet Annals of Tang | |
| 838 | RW: a great terrible plague | |
| 848 | RW: eclipse of the sun | |
| 852 | 852 partial solar eclipse | |
| 878 | 878 total solar eclipse | |
| 879 | ASC the sun goes dark | |
| 885 | 885 total solar eclipse | ASC: the sun grew dark |
| 891 | 891 Comet observed, China | RW: a star appeared… some men say that in English it may be termed “hairy star”; for that there standeth off from it a long gleam of light |
| 905 | 905 Comet observed, China | ASC: Here a comet appeared. |
| 906 | RW: a comet appeared for half a year. | |
| 912 | 912 18 July, 912 Chinese Annals of the Five Dynasties (83) Halley’s Comet 912 Annals of Ulster (a chronicle of medieval Ireland) notes in its final entry for AD 912: “A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared | |
| 975 | ASC: and this year Edward, Edgar’s son, succeeded to the kingdom; and then soon, in the same year, during harvest, appeared “cometa” the star; RW: A comet appeared followed by dreadful famine. | |
| 989 | 989 AD Chinese Annals of Sund Halley’s Comet | |
| 995 | ASC: a comet that is haired | |
| 1066 | 1066 Halley’s Comet | ASC: AD 1066 ASC.Then was over all England such a token seen as no man ever saw before. Some men said that it was the comet-star, which others denominate the long-hair’d star. It appeared first on the eve called “Litania major” that is, on the eighth before the calends off May; and so shone all the week RW: Harold’s death predicted by large comet of bloody colour with a long train |